Foreign Policy 1776-1807 Dbq

During the Washington, Adams, and the Jefferson administrations, the United States was thrust into the decision of joining either Britain or France, the two most powerful European nations. In determining the effects of foreign policy on the developing nation, one must establish the overall direction of the United States took. As a budding nation, George Washington proposed the idea of neutrality in order for the country to have no involvement in European affairs. However, Federalists and Democratic Republicans were outraged by this decision since the Federalists supported the British while the Democratic Republicans supported the French. Neutrality also allowed the United States to temporarily smooth its relations with Europe because of commercial interest. Therefore, neutrality, instead of siding with either Britain or France or through their commercial interests, was the obvious direction taken by foreign policy. After witnessing and being involved in uncontrollable European affairs, the growing nation of the United States concluded that an international policy of neutrality would be the best option in the area of foreign affairs. During his presidency, Washington decided that it was best for America to stay neutral. As stated in his Proclamation of Neutrality that any American providing assistance to any country at war would be punished with legal proceedings (D). He was aware of the possible dangers that would occur when allying with a certain country. The country was too new to enter any wars or deal with wars of foreign countries. â€Å"Europe has a set of primary interests†¦Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns† (J). Even in his farewell address, Washington advised the fledgling nation to not get involved in European affairs or make permanent alliances, to avoid sectionalism, and to not form political parties. After Washington resigned from office, John Adams tried to maintain the position of neutrality as the second president of the United States. He did as much as he could in avoiding war with France. Even before his presidency, in response to a proposed alliance with France, he argued that â€Å"†¦we ought not to enter into any Alliance with her [France], which should entangle Us in any future wars in Europe, that We ought to lay it down as a first principle and a Maxim never to be forgotten, to maintain an entire Neutrality in all future European Wars† (A). However, after the XYZ Affair, in which French agents demanded a large bribe for the restoration of diplomatic relations with the United States, a Quasi War erupted between France and America. The Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine, was a treaty between the United States and France to settle the hostilities that erupted during that war (I). When Thomas Jefferson became president, it was a peaceful transition from Federalist to Democratic Republican. Despite the differences between these political parties, Jefferson also tried to maintain Washington’s idea of neutrality. In his Inaugural Address in 1801, he states â€Å"We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists† and that there would be â€Å"Equal and exact justice to all men, friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (K). Even as a last resort to the Louisiana Purchase, he told Monroe to make an alliance with Great Britain if the Louisiana Purchase did not work out. In all three of their presidencies, Washington, Adams, and Jefferson decided that it was best for the new nation to enter a state of neutrality. Despite its neutrality and unwillingness to enter war with the European nations, the United States were being forced to side with either Great Britain or France, Europe’s most powerful nations. During Washington’s presidency, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genet, also known as Citizen Genet, to America to propagandize the case for France in the French war against Great Britain, which created the network of Democratic Republicans. Washington demanded the French government recall Genet, and denounced the societies. The United States were in a conflict with Britain, as the British were seizing American ships and impressing sailors. Hamilton and Washington designed the Jay’s Treaty to normalize trade relations with Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution (F). John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty in 1794. However, many disputes rose from this decision. James Madison criticized that the treaty stated to open West India ports to the United States, yet Britain refused to follow these regulations (G). During Adam’s presidency, the XYZ Affair, which was supposed to have been the negotiation between America and France on the seizure of American ships, threw the United States into a Quasi War with the French. In the aftermath of the undeclared naval war with France, the Alien and Sedition Acts were passed, which allowed the president to deport hostile aliens, increased residency requirements for citizenship, and banned criticism of government policies or officials. After the United States’ conflict with France, Jefferson, a Democratic Republican, considered the possibility of an alliance with Britain. While Britain and France were both seizing American ships, Britain had the strongest navy and was thus able to force the American sailors into its navy (M). Jefferson believed that this conflict would cease if the United States agreed to establish an alliance with Britain. Torn between the conflict of siding with either France or Britain, the United States agreed to remain neutral. Although neutrality in the new nation was favored, there was a possibility of joining either Britain or France depending on which one was more financially beneficial. After Jay’s Treaty, which was signed with Great Britain during Washington’s presidency, Spain did not want the United States to side with the British and wanted to smooth its relations with the fledgling country. Pinckney’s Treaty, signed on October 27, 1795, established the intentions of friendship between the United States and Spain. The treaty also granted the States use of the Mississippi and right of deposit at New Orleans (H). In the Treaty of Paris in 1783, â€Å"It is agreed that the people of the United States shall continue to enjoy unmolested the right to take fish of every kind on the Grand Bank†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and that â€Å"The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States† (E). Thomas Paine stated that commerce would secure the friendship with Europe because Europe wants America to have a free port (B). Jefferson, fearing the power of the neighboring French in the Louisiana Territory, sent Monroe to Paris to negotiate the purchase in 1802. Their interest was only in the port and its environs. They did not anticipate the much larger transfer of territory that would follow. The purchase greatly benefited the United States because it granted them access to the entire Mississippi River. Also, as a result of impressments of American sailors, Jefferson established the Embargo Act of 1807, also known as the Nonintercourse Acts, restricting American ships from engaging in foreign trade between the years 1807 to 1812. Jefferson believed that without trade with the United States, Britain and France would fall into an economic crisis. However, the Europeans nations did not bother with America and traded with other countries, causing the new nation’s economy to fall. This outraged the general public, and when Jefferson left office, these acts were repealed. Commercial interest helped the United States to choose between siding with either of the European nations or remaining neutral. Throughout the Washington, Adams, and Jefferson administrations, Britain and France tried to force the United States into allying with either of the two nations. Although it was tough to maintain, neutrality was established in the country by Washington. The decision brought various problems for the budding nation, but it still stayed strong.

Girl’s dancing Essay

The failure of Parris to determine a cause for the girl’s dancing leads to another key character, Reverend Hale of Beverly. From the moment he enters the act, he is portrayed as a man of arrogance and over confidence. Yet, he seems embarrassed when Proctor praises him, contradicting his exterior demeanor. In the early course of the play, Hale is a force behind the conviction of so-called ‘witches’ and he is continually probing people to confess. Like most of the other characters in the play, Hale himself is also afraid of the unknown, despite his ‘experience’ with incidents of this kind in the past. He remarks that no matter what religious status an individual may occupy, they may still be accused of dealing with the devil. In a clear contrast to the beginning of the play he appears uncertain if the girls are telling the truth, but is reluctant to show his suspicions until the very end of the play. Tragically, his suspicions are told too late, as the trials no longer remain in his hands. His reluctance to speak what he actually believed in condemned many more people, which means that Hale is a key figure in showing how innocent people can be convicted and ‘murdered’ so easily by the girls. John Proctor plays the most prominent role in the play, as Arthur Miller gradually brings him into the affray as more and more people become convicted, one of whom is his wife, Elizabeth. Proctor is regarded as a strong figure in the society of Salem, yet his past life continues to haunt him however, as he has committed the sin of adultery with none other than Abigail Williams herself before the play. Once the trials begin, Proctor realises he can stop Abigail’s rampage through Salem, if he confesses to his sin of adultery. This would ruin his reputation in the society, so he is reluctant to confess. This likens Proctor to Reverend Parris at this stage, as he they are both intent on keeping their good reputations. Towards the end of the play however, this changes as Proctor is prepared to lose his reputation by confessing to adultery and finding the truth. His confession arrives too late however, as the matters in the court have gone too far. This now likens him to Reverend Hale, as both of them form an invisible alliance in the courtroom, as both know that Abigail is manipulating the judges and is clearly lying. Proctor is also portrayed as an ‘un-Christian’ being in the mind of the court when Hale questions him about his Christianity. This lack of religious belief in him is a key factor in the court proceedings once Proctor is brought before them. However Miller creates sympathy with the 20th century audience for Proctor by creating hostility towards other characters. The sympathy is also shown at the end of the play when Proctor refuses to give up his name in order to establish the truth. This gives the audience the impression that Proctor is a man of integrity and is willing to give up everything for the truth. Judge Danforth is the key figure in the condemnation of the accused persons. He is, like Parris, portrayed as a man intent on keeping his reputation rather than finding the truth. He enters the play as the trials begin, having no background knowledge of what has gone on in the society before the trials involving Proctor and Abigail, and has no knowledge of people’s ways of thinking and attitudes towards others. These factors ultimately are the main reasons why people are convicted in Danforth’s court, and not because of witchcraft. During the court case in act three involving Proctor and Abigail, all the truthful evidence that Proctor gives against Abigail is ignored by Danforth, as he is easily distracted by Abigail’s lies. This shows that Danforth and the court’s justice is flawed. The flawed justice of the court is another clear reason of how Salem’s society is able to convict people so easily. He also expects people to side with the court by saying: ‘ †¦ A person is either with this court or against it. ‘ This shows that if you were against the court then you would be persecuted. During the case, his justice is frequently questioned, which angers him, as he is not used to having his justice questioned.. Danforth’s belief in the truth fluctuates, as there are points where he begins to doubt Abigail’s story such as where he ‘studies Abigail for a minute’. However, to wash away all of Danforth’s doubts Abigail pretends to have ‘visions’. This works on every occasion, and therefore proves that the court’s justice is again flawed if it can be manipulated so easily by a mere 17-year-old Christian girl on a quest for love. The cause many people would believe of the outpouring of accusations and convictions in Salem would be Abigail Williams, but the detail that surrounds the events is immense. There are many different key figures surrounding the deaths and all play a large part in the events that took place after the ‘dancin’ occurred.

Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Comparison

Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Comparison Essay Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism Comparison Essay Essay There are many similarities and differences between the three ways of life we have been studying for the past week. Each has its own unique purpose and type of people. Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism all have similar and different qualities. I will explain similarities and differences in this essay. The basic beliefs and concepts of Confucianism are similar to Taoism in the sense that they want peace and good behavior. The Buddhists, on the other hand, strictly have the purpose to reach Nirvana and follow the four noble truths. The overall goal of Confucian is different than Buddhism and Taoism because the overall goal of the Confucius is to find their peaceful and harmonious place in life, while the two others have no overall goal. The goal of the individual believer is similar in Confucianism and Buddhism because they each follow a certain behavior and want to be in harmony with nature. The Tao just have to follow the life according to the Tao. All of the three beliefs have a different view on life. The Confucians believe that you should be improved by education and development of your character. The Tao believed that the life you lived with the Tao ways was good and following societys ways was very bad. The Buddhist believe that there will always be negativity in life, and that all life has a lot of suffering in it. Therefore, you cannot change that. This is why the Buddhists think reincarnation is a bad thing. There is a similar bond between the Confucians and the Tao in the category rules and behavior. They both believe that you must act accordingly in some way. These two are different also in the sense that Tao believe the life is to be lived according to the Tao and Confucians believe to live it according to actions. Also, the Confucians believed you need to understand the relationship with family, and to follow the five goals of Confucianism. The Buddhists had a totally different idea for this though they believe that you just need to follow behavior in the ways of the eightfold path and the nine precepts. In the category of view of society, each belief has a different view. The Confucians believed that you develop good character through a good life and that everyone has their own role. The Taos thought society to be negative. They believed that it was artificial and went against all beliefs of the Tao. The Buddhists usually have an explanation and opinion for everything, but in this case they didnt. Each belief influenced China in a unique way. The Confucians influenced the basis of society, family structure, and the government for thousands of years. The Tao influenced the poetry types Li-Po and TuFu. The Buddhists influenced China by the improvement of landscape painting and that was pretty much it. As you can see Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism are very different, but at the same time they are very similar. Each belief has its unique view on basic beliefs, overall goals, goals of the individual believer, view of life, rules of behavior, views of society and influence on China. Even though some of the views are negative it is the only way the people of that belief know. Religion .

Homework2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Homework2 - Essay Example The Gaza Strip has been an area of interest for the Palestine and the Israel communities. If you compare the GDP of Israel with that of Palestine in 2012, we find that Israel is far much better. What creates this enormous difference? The answer is simple. Palestine is ever at war and never enjoys any political stability despite having deep oil fields worth billions of dollars. It is also evident that US, UK, Germany, France, and Japan has a relatively superior GDP compared to the rest of the world but their wealth cannot match that of the 22 Arab League Members. This is because all these countries rely on the Arab nations for energy. These countries need energy security in order to sustain their economy (Ma). It is also for this reason that US entered into an agreement with Israel to build the largest solar station in the world. Bright Source Energy and Southern California Edison are in collaboration to make this project a dream come true. This project will cause US $ $1.37 billion ( Karin Kloosterm). In order for the US to sustain their superiority, they must ensure that they have energy resources which should help keep their economy in check. This will also help them to retain their economic dominance. Ma, Damien. Dependence on Middle Eastern Oil: Now Its Chinas Problem, Too. 19 July 2012. 2014

Got milk Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Got milk - Case Study Example The business will also lose its operating license and in the process face prosecution for not maintaining health standards in the production of food products. The management of the business and in particular the procurement department should be help responsible when products are manufactured by using contaminated milk. The procurement department should be held liable since they are charged with the task of acquiring and testing raw products (Hartley & Bruckmann, 2002). A CRM system would have been very useful in the process of communicating issues regarding milk production in the supply chain. A CRM would have helped in learning all aspects of a customer’s behaviors and needs, and use this information for better company management that is performing damage control. Through a CRM, the management of a milk production company can embark on damage control by informing customers on the problem that has occurred during the production process. The management will have to provide an official apology to customers this will send a signal to customers that the management is truly sorry about the unfortunate situation. A company would also perform an effective damage control using the CRM, by offering efficient customer service and providing customers with high standardized milk products (Hartley & Bruckmann, 2002). As much as maintain ethical behavior is important, respect for human life is equally important. I do not agree with the act of sentencing the middlemen to death. The middlemen would have been sentenced to prison as the dairy boss was sentence to life imprisonment. The act of sentencing to death is very extreme. The court would have opted for a different form of sentencing instead of death sentences. The United States is governed by a democratic government, and in essence, it should not consider implementing similar laws as those of

New Jersey Historic Site Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

New Jersey Historic Site Paper - Essay Example This was the beginning of colonization history of New Jersey. Eventually, British took control over the colonies. After 1664 the land was officially called New Jersey after the Isle of Jersey in the English Channel. During its history New Jersey had to fight for its freedom. In 1776 New Jersey proclaimed its independency and joined the side of colonies in the Revolutionary War, with more battles fought in New Jersey than in any other state, with the turning point of the war being battles in Trenton and Princeton. In 1787 the state of New Jersey accepted the Constitution of United States and signed the Bill of Rights. From then on The State of New Jersey developed rapidly, with many cities becoming manufacturing centers. The emerging of Virginian railroad and the construction of the West Virginia Turnpike became important events for the city, which transformed it into center of commerce. These are only snap shots of the history of New Jersey. There are a lot of noteworthy stories and characters. There are also a lot of â€Å"prove† of this history – landscapes, battlefields, homes, etc. Many places that are dating back to Revolutionary War were recreated. There are National parks, historical villages, lighthouses and more. There are also historical homes of famous people such as Thomas Edison, Albert Einstein, who was among first professors appointed to work in the Institute for Advanced Study, which was founded in Princeton in 1930. This institute became the first residential institute for scholars and research personnel. Now, let us localize our research of major historical sites of New Jersey to the city of Princeton. The first permanent settlers came to the place that was to become the Princeton Township in the late 17th century. It started with the â€Å"house of accommodation† or tavern, built on the highway by Henry Greenland. Then, six Quaker’s families built a community along Stony Brook, thus, the settlement got to be known by the same name. The community started to grow and in 1724 it got its name Princeton – in honor of the Prince William of Orange and Nassau. In 1756 a new building was erected on the Nassau Hall – College of New Jersey. This added prominence to Princeton. There are mansions that were built around what was a village at the time, one of them being Morven. Since Princeton is located halfway between New York and Philadelphia, it was a usual place to stop for the night for the travelers. Thus, many taverns grew. Later, the rail road was built and made the commerce easier. Later, in 1776 some states ratified Declaration of Independence. Once the states were independent, they adopted constitutions and waged war against England to be permanently freed from its control. The state of New Jersey took part in Revolutionary War and the battle of Princeton was waged here and became a turning point in the war. This also made Princeton famous. After the revolution Princeton was a capi tal of the United States, albeit briefly. Here in Princeton, while awaiting ratification of the Peace Treaty with England, in Nassau Hall Continental Congress had its meetings. General Washington also resided nearby. After the Civil War many new buildings were built. The College has been expanding to reach the number of twenty-seven buildings total within the next fifty years. As the city grow, nearby mansions and farms became a part of it. Nowadays Princeton is among the most populated cities of America. To name several historical sites

Marketing in Photography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marketing in Photography - Essay Example Brand is linked with the product by relaying the attributes and character of the product (Roeck, Maon and Lejeune). However, the understanding of brand and product is necessary which include the understanding of the corporate strategy. Developing of strong brand is vital in the evaluation of the market. Branding in corporate and product sectors is similar because it involves creation of a positive image about the brand. In spite of excellent branding strategies, the company must distinguish a brand from a product, which is the key goal of branding. Brand involves the marketing of the diverse range of products developed in the market. In fact, it involves the creation of a strong resonance with brand. The online business dictionary defines a product as a good idea, method of doing something, information or data, or service resulting in meeting the need or want of the customer or population. It further describes it in legal term as commercially distributed item that may be physical, in tangible such as a result or output derived from an act of fabrication, manufacturing. This should pass through a distribution channel ending at the consumption of the good or service. It finally describes a product in marketing perspective, as an item or service that meets the needs or requirement of a specific market or market segment leading to the realization of profits as the eventual outcome. â€Å"The other aspect of brand names equally as significant is in its extendibility and factors that influence it† (Finskud 81). Achieving profit leads to justification of the continual existence of the product while loss leads to removal or phasing off of the product or service. A brand can be categorized as a â€Å"strong brand† if it has several qualities or characters associated with strong brands. Strong brand is characterized by the ability to drive the shareholder value; therefore, it is managed by brand marketers who ensure an active buy in from all stakeholders (Ro eck, Maon and Lejeune). The brand is valued in financial terms and is classified as an asset to the company during the calculation of profits and loss. Because of being part of the organization, it is an integral part of the organization covering a variety of business dimension (Roeck, Maon and Lejeune). The brand, owing to the ability to quantify the value of the brand, can used in the obtaining loans or be bought as an asset. There are four factors associated with the Brands; these four factors influence the strength of the brand. The four factors are; affinity, challenge, fame and price. Branding is vital in marketing because it enables the sales of all the company’s range of products. The success of many companies such as; Coca Cola, Adidas and Nike among other brands are based on use of brand image creation (Kapferer 69). Therefore, companies must be ready to venture in branding to be able to achieve success. Additionally, customers are ready to pay consistently a higher price for the brand while ignoring the competing product or service. As a result of the strong affiliation to the brand, customers want to associate with the brand, it qualities, values and personality. Association with the brand gives rise to loyalty to the brand. Due to the above characteristics the brand becomes a trademark protected by the firm and its legal advisors. There are four f

The Palestinian-Israeli Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Palestinian-Israeli - Research Paper Example In his UPI report, Richard Sales describes the events leading up to Israel’s declaration of Hamas as a terrorist organization. In June, 2002, Hamas took credit for a suicide blast in Jerusalem that killed 19 Israelis and wounded 70. The Islamic Resistance Movement, Hamas, took credit. Before this event Hamas played a very different role in the politics between Israel and the Palestinians. After it, Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon declared it a terrorist organization, "the deadliest terrorist group that we have ever had to face." The history of this shift is politically intriguing. According to Sales, several current and former U.S. intelligence officials say that in the late 1970s Tel Aviv gave direct and indirect financial aid to Hamas as a more friendly group to counterbalance the generally hostel Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The move attempted to divide support for the PLO, a secular group, by using Hamas, a more socially and religiously oriented organization—an identity that would change over time. Hamas evolved from cells of the Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928. After the 1967 Six Day War, it became the cornerstone of the social, religious, educational and cultural infrastructure, called Da'wah, that worked to ease the hardship of Palestinian refugees. Hamas’s influence eventually grew to be political, with strong religious Islamic tones and ties favorable to groups which wanted to set up an Islamic state much like Iran’s.

A comparison of Francis Bacon and Mary Shelley's views of science as Essay

A comparison of Francis Bacon and Mary Shelley's views of science as expressed in The Sphinx and Frankenstein, respectively - Essay Example Bacon theorized that science is a means to solving two riddles, one being the nature of things and the other the nature of man. His ideas for a way to solve these riddles are very similar to the widely utilized scientific method, believing that matter can be studied and understood by observation, trial, and error (Bacon). Bacon manifests his vision of science in the mythical Sphinx. The Sphinx is a monster with the head and voice of a young woman, the feet of the griffin, and wings of a bird. The creature and her riddles represent the riddles of science and how searching for the answers can either tear apart a man or cause a break through by answering the riddle and subduing the Sphinx, or quenching the man’s immediate thirst for knowledge. The man who finally defeats the Sphinx, a man with high intelligence and clubbed feet, demonstrates the need for patience and taking things slowly when confronting the riddles of science. If a man showed ignorance in the face of science, if he failed to answer the riddle correctly, the Sphinx would rip him apart. The griffin claws of the Sphinx represent the way that the pursuit of answers can take sharp hold in the human mind, effectively ripping it apart if the answers are not found. In the same vein, the face and voice represent the beauty of science and the wings are indicative of how the answers of science spread and fly quickly to the far reaches of the Earth (Bacon). Her riddles originate from the Muses, where the questions are ambiguous and have no emotional subtext. Once the riddles reach the Sphinx, they contain the unbiased cruelty of the pursuits of science, where the questions themselves do not care regarding the havoc they can wreak on those who dare to try to solve them. Bacon has taken an ancient myth and applied it to the mysteries of the universe. Mary Shelley’s view of science relates to Bacon’s in that she also viewed

Sanskrit Numerations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sanskrit Numerations - Essay Example It is widely agreed upon that that Vedic form of Sanskrit underwent a seamless evolution into the Classic Sanskrit by the middle of the first millennium BC where it changed from the first language to the second language of religion and learning. The whole Hindu-Arabic numeral system is a place value numeral system, which to the most part is built on the base 10, unlike the Babylonian base 60 system (J.J O'Connor and E F Robertson, par.3). The place value system of enumeration is built into the Sanskrit language which used nine numerals and the zero to give representation to numbers ranging from the smallest of decimals to the largest powers of ten. Sanskrit gives each power of ten a distinguishable name and as a result giving no special significance to a separate number. The Yajurveda Samhitaa listed names of units of ten up to 10 to the twelfth power (India and the Scientific Revolution, sec.3) and in times to come, Buddhist and Jain authors carried forward the list to the fifty-third power. The Sanskrit numeration system provides actual distinct names to the powers of ten, in stark contrast to the English style of using auxiliary bases like thousand, billion etc. Numbers from the start were expressed by taking the names o f the first nine units separately and the powers of ten. For Sanskrit, literature number words were used for the first nine numbers and the powers of ten. The most widely used place value symbols belong to the Devanagari script numerals, which are themselves very similar to the Brahmi numerals and form the basis of the modern Hindu-Arabic numerals (Origins, par.1). The numbers till the first power of 10 in the Sanskrit language are: The introduction of a 10th symbol, for the numeral Zero paved the way for the positional system of decimal numeration. The modern decimal system was born when the symbol for the numeral Zero came in the shape of a small circle with a dot in the middle (the dot was later dropped in the modern '0'). The widely known advancement in Arab mathematics was based on the Sanskrit numeral system and its place value and decimal system of enumeration methods. Around the seventh and eighth century, the simple and ingenious Sanskrit methods came to the attention of the Arabs and it wasn't till the 12th century that it reached Europe when Adelard of Bath translated the work of Al-Khwarizmi (an Arab mathematician) into Latin (India and the scientific revolution, sec.3). Europe, more familiar with the Roman numeral system was resistant to the Sanskrit numeral system but when the eventual adoption finally occurred, a scientific revolution swept Europe beginning in the thirteenth century. Sanskrit language and its numeral system have greatly contributed to the modern day languages and mathematics. The Devanagri script which is adopted by Hindi, Marathi and Sanskrit still employ the same numeral symbols, although the names of the numbers vary by language. The Sanskrit language is used mainly in Hindu religious rituals but the Sanskrit numerals system is the true pioneer of the modern-day mathematics. The place-value system embedded in the Sanskrit numeral system makes some parts of it very logical and wonderfully easy and simple for scientific and mathematical reasoning (India and the scientific revolution, sec.3). It outshone the Greek and Roman numeral methods and forced the Europeans

The War of 1812 Essay Example for Free

The War of 1812 Essay The War of 1812 was an important event in American history because from the end of the war forward the United States was respected internationally as a nation. In essence, the United States would gain nothing from the War of 1812 after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, but what the United States would end the Native American threat on its westernmost borders, but also a new sense of nationalism would emerge. While the causes and effects are diverse in nature, the War of 1812 made a lasting impact on American history as being the event that taught the fledgling nation what it meant to be independent, and teaching it to be prepared militarily. One of the key elements that helped in the growing development of the United States military was the realization that the military was unprepared for the War of 1812. The United States was a new country and their military was not as prepared for a war. The primary soldiers were state militias who were untrained and not ready to see battle but as a new nation that hadnt had the time to create a strong military system, the United States had to use them if they were going to be able to fight the war. If the United States had had a better plan for the international situations that arose surrounding a nation the war may never have had to be fought. Communication was a problem as well as there were instances where it became sorely obvious how unprepared they were for this sort of situation. For example, by the time the United States entered into a declaration of war, the British had already rescinded the Order in Council. Also, when the war was ended two years later the bloodiest battle of the war would take place two weeks later because communication of the wars end did not reach the far south of the United States. The nation was unprepared to fight a war and unprepared to communicate during a war (The War of 1812). The War of 1812 had many effects on the United States. The war, which had begun as an issue involving maritime trade lines, became something even more close to home as the war turned against the Native Americans in the northern areas of the United States. The War Hawks, in fact, would get more than they could have hoped for with their victory on their own shores. This war also brought about a new sense of nationalism in the United States, a country fighting to prove its place in a world of established nations. The War of 1812 changed the face of American history for decades to come. Without this war there would have never been the type of American pride that is still felt by the average American today. The war also taught the United States a few things about their foreign policy and how to deal with international issues, and showed them how important it was to be militarily prepared for anything. The Native Americans of the northern part of the country were conquered and, while there was still bad feelings between the US and Great Britain it was nothing like it had been before.This war changed the landscape of the United States as well as its politics, making an impact that was felt for centuries. Works Cited Mintz, S. , comp. War of 1812. 2003. Digital History. 17 Mar. 2007 http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/historyonline/us10. cfm. Nelson, Rebecca, ed. The Handy History Answer Book. Detroit: Visible Ink, 1999. 99-101. The War of 1812. 2007. Wisconsin Historical Society. 17 Mar. 2007 http://www. wisconsinhistory. org/turningpoints/tp-010/.

History of the concept of creativity

History of the concept of creativity History of the concept of creativity In spite of its current popularity, the concept of creativity, i.e. its name, is a recent notion that, nevertheless, went through a number of development stages and metamorphoses caused by the changes in the way the concept of creativity was perceived by societies at various stages of development. The process is not finished yet. Sometime in the future the general concept of creativity will hopefully be converted into a specialized concept, i. e. its regularities will be enumerated while its particularities linking it currently to a culture or a subculture will be eliminated. In the following text, the evolution of the concept of creativity throughout history is reviewed briefly, with the focus on important milestones and personalities. The milestones are arranged in a temporal sequence, whereas outstanding personalities are quoted where necessary, rather than presented in a strict temporal sequence. It is intuitively easy to accept the thesis that creative acts have been around as long as the homo sapiens, the humanoids and, indeed, living organisms. The concept of creativity appeared much later, and came forth very gradually. On the long way to establishing it, many intermediate new terms were generated, some of which have been used for centuries, in exceptional cases until our time. They help us understand more easily what creativity is and how it interacts with other operations in the intellectual sphere. Theoretical views of creativity follow the development of human culture and thought. Therefore, the concept of creativity is a component of the history of the human thought to the same extent as any other intellectual manifestation (Briffault, 1928). Much of the historical developments as accounted for in the following review are based on Tatarkiewiczs book (1980), Dictionnaire philosophique, and the following references: Verma (1969), Lindberg (1976), Abdus Salam (1984), Agar (2001), Ahmad (2002), Steffens (2006), Covington (2007), Roshdi (2007), and Medieval Classic civilization; An Encyclopaedia. Prehistoric times Remarkable and very advanced objects testifying to human creative genius are known from the art history. They originate from many parts of the world and from many different cultures and epochs. Perhaps the foremost examples of the earliest manifestations of creativity are various objects produced by the Australian Aborigines. The Aborigines are presumed to have moved to Australia from India some 50 000 years ago. Their most puzzling creative product is the boomerang for them hunting tool, for us an enigmatic object of scientific studies. Other important manifestation of human creative act and thought originates from Egypt and Mexico. These countries distinguish themselves not only by very advanced ability to produce objects, but also by the scientific (most often astronomic) knowledge embedded in these products. The pyramids of Egypt and those of Mexico, Guatemala, or Belize, the Mayan calendar, and the way of using mathematics in Egypt and in Mexico, are absolutely amazing even today. The Mayan astronomers had developed a spatial geometry parting from astronomy. The mathematics they used is still more accurate than the computational algorithms that make the flow of data in modern information networks possible (Ferrera-Balanquet, 2009). Another cultural area of great importance extends in Asia, particularly in the area comprising the present day Iraq, Iran, India, Sri Lanka and Cambodia. Buildings, materials and various concepts of physics embedded in the buildings testify to the high level of knowledge these peoples possessed thousands of years ago. In China and Japan, too, creativity enhanced knowledge in a manner that after thousands of years is still admired. India stands, as usual, apart in that it knew creativity as â€Å"insight† since times immemorial. For instance, in the extinct Pali language the word vipassanÄ  consists of the Sanskrit prefix â€Å"vi-â€Å" and the verbal root à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡paņº. It is often translated as †insight† or â€Å"clear-seeing,† One should not be misled by the â€Å"in-â€Å" prefix in â€Å"insight†.. â€Å"Vi† in ancient Aryan languages is equivalent to the Latin â€Å"dis-†. It is reasonable to conclude that in the word vipassanÄ  the prefix â€Å"vi-† generates the meaning â€Å"to see apart†, or discern. Alternatively, the â€Å"vi† can function as an intensifier. In that case vipassanÄ  may mean â€Å"seeing deeply†. A pali synonym for â€Å"VipassanÄ Ã¢â‚¬  is paccakkha, menaing â€Å"before the eyes,† which refers to direct experiential perception. Thus, the type of seeing denoted by â€Å"vipassanÄ Ã¢â‚¬  is that of direct perception and experience, as opposed to knowledge derived from reasoning or argument. It has also been adopted as the name of a kind of Buddhist meditation. Ancient Greece The people of Ancient Greece had no terms corresponding to â€Å"creativity† or â€Å"creator†. Yet, the poet was considered to be one who creates. Whatever was â€Å"creative† in the present sense of the word, was called art. The concept of art (in Greek  Ã…  Ã‚ Ã‹Å" Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °, from which technique and technology evolved), implied subjection to rules. Poetry (from  Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã‚ Ã†â€™Ã…  Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¼ to make) was an exception, although it was limited only to  Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™Ã…  Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã‚ Ã‹â€  (poetry) and to the  Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ °Ã‚ Ã…  Ã‚ Ã… ¡Ã‚ Ã‹â€  (poet, or maker) who made it, rather than to art in general. The reason was that art was considered an imitation of what already exists, â€Å"the making of things, according to rules†, hence subjection to laws and rules. In painting, music, or literature, there was no freedom. They were governed by what was known as ÃŽÂ ½ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹ (the laws). This conservative attitude and need for subjection prevailed in the works of Plato who claimed, mainly in Timaeus, Dialogue of Ion, and in The Republic, that a good work is contingent on observing an eternal model as suggested by Nature, and never deviate from that model. The eternal models were within reach, in the surrounding world, of which artists were the imitators. They thus had to abide by certain rules. In the visual arts, freedom was curtailed by the proportions that Polyclitus had established for the human frame. He called them â€Å"the canon† (meaning, measure). Likewise, in music, no freedom was necessary because melodies for ceremonies and entertainme nt were known. They were prescribed as nomoi. Making of things according to rules, or à Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ µÃƒ Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ·, was not considered to contain any creativity at all. In fact, if they had contained creativity, the state of affairs would be considered bad by the Greek standards of that time: Something similar to the negative perception of creative accounting nowadays [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 244]. Man ought to discover the laws of Nature and abide by them. Seeking freedom of action unnecessarily distracts him from seeking the optimum way. In Ancient Greece the artist was not an inventor, he was a discoverer [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 245]. It means that he had to study the laws of Nature, discover and see how related entities interact, and use them as a model. This world-view had its own justification. Nature is both perfect and subject to laws. The artists ambition must be to discover these laws and submit to them, rather than seek the distracting freedom from these laws, a freedom that would deflect him from attaining the optimal state. Poetry stood outside these limitations. The poet invented a whole new world and gave it life. The poet differed from the artist, the imitator, in that laws did not bind him. In spite of the absence of the term for creativity, creation, or the creator, the poet, and only the poet, was understood to be a creator.According to the Greek view, the poet was an inventor, i. e. he put together unrelated entities and let them interact in an arbitrary manner. This is what made poetry the only exception from the rules applying to art. In terms of truthfulness of this world-view, Aristotle, who established the term truth, was not sure whether poetry required adherence to truth, i. e. whether it imitated Nature. He thought that poetry was in the realm that was neither true nor false [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 245-6]. The concepts of imagination and inspiration, too, were restricted to poetry only. Poets were seen differently and they saw things differently. But not everybody was reconciled with this restriction. An example can be found in the Odyssey, where a question is posed why the singer should be forbidden to entertain his listeners with singing as he himself will. Yet, even in this rigid environment of dogmas, some progress took place. Thus, in the 3rd century, Porphyry of Tyros graphically visualized the concept categories of Aristotle. In the 4thcentury of the Christian era, Pappus of Alexandria searched for a science of invention. He named his techniques â€Å"heuristics†. Antique Rome The Roman civilization developed from the Greek civilization. It was younger, thus more progressive and more exploratory than was the civilization of Greece. Therefore, things were seen in a different light in Rome, and the Greek concepts were viewed as partially outdated. To begin with, the vocabulary was enriched with new concepts, which shook up the foundations of the Greek thought. This effort happened to follow two counter-directions. on the one hand, Cicero wrote that art embraces those things â€Å"which are known† (â€Å"quae sciuntur†) [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 245]. Horace, on the other hand, elevated painters to the level of poets in giving them the privilege of daring whatever they pleased (â€Å"quod libet audendi†), instead of following the â€Å"eternal model†. Moreover, in the declining period of antiquity, Lucius Flavius Philostratus discovered a similarity between poetry and art, and found that art and poetry have imagination in common. Cal listratos expanded these ideas by stating that as much as the art of the poets and writers of prosaic literature is inspired, so are the hands of sculptors. They, too, are gifted with the blessing of divine inspiration. The novelty of these postulates follows from the fact that Greeks had applied the concepts of imagination and inspiration to poetry only, but not to the visual arts. The Greek language had no word for creating, whereas Latin had. Creare and facere were two Latin words corresponding to the Greek à Ã¢â€š ¬ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ µÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Yet, initially the two Latin terms had almost the same meaning (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 246), and were thus interchangeable. Christianity Under medieval Christianity, the Latin â€Å"creatio† came to designate Gods act of â€Å"creatio ex nihilo† (i.e. creation from nothing). â€Å"Creatio† thus no longer could apply to human activities. Its meaning differed from the meaning of â€Å"facere† (to make). Applied to human activities, facere was the only word to be used. Cassiodorus, the important statesman and writer of the 6th century, explained that things made and created differ, because we can make but cannot create. His important works on this topic, written after his retirement, include De anima (published 540), Institutiones Divinarum et Saecularium Litterarum (published probably 543-555), and De Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Litterarum [Tatarkiewicz 1980, p. 247]. This more or less â€Å"secular† interpretation of creativity collided with the archaic views of some Christian writers. To begin with, they believed that art did not belong to the realm of creativity. In this respect they had the same belief as the Greeks. Medieval Christian writers granted no exception to poetry. They claimed that poetry had to follow its rules. Therefore it was an art, i. e. a craft rather than a creative activity. The dominant figure among these writers was St. Augustine, a personality whose works are of interest even today. He is claimed to have used the word imagination as a precursor to creativity. Imagination, according to St. Augustine comprised disposition, multiplication, reduction, extension, ordering, any kind of re-composition of images, etc. (Rodari, 1983). These very same components of â€Å"imagination† are used even today [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 247]. Further changes were recorded in the Middle Ages: poetrys exceptional status was gradually revoked, because poetry had its rules. It was thus regarded as an art, i. e. a craft, rather than creativity. The new, religious interpretation of the expression notwithstanding, the opinion that art is not related to creativity persisted. The works of two influential early Christian writers, Pseudo-Dionysius and St. Augustine, prove it. The same can be said the works of Hraban the Moor and Robert Grosseteste, in the 13th century. Renaissance There are two periods in European history, called the Renaissance. The first one is the 12th century Renaissance. It was a period of many innovative and creative cahnges during the High Middle Ages, such as social, political and economic transformations. Parallel developments in philosophy and science resulted in an intellectual revitalization of Europe. The second renaissance is the Italian Renaissance in the 15th century. Some historians claim that the changes having taken place in the Middle Ages paved the way to the Italian Renaissance, as well as to the scientific developments of the 17th century. The French historian Jacques le Goff, an agnostic, argues that the Middle Ages formed an entirely new civilization, distinct from both the Greco-Roman antiquity, and from the modern world. The medieval achievements of the human mind and the human hands can only be related briefly. The First Rrenaissance . The most creative political acts of the 12th century were the founding of the Hansa in Northern Europe (along the southern shore of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, with a few excursions deeper into Central Europe), the Crusades, the rise of towns, and the rise of the early bureaucratic states. In the cultural sphere the vernaculars began to replace Latin increasingly, higher education became more prominent, with universities sprouting all around the European continent between the Atlantic and the Theisse river, the Romanesque art was gradually replaced by the Gothic art, the liturgical drama, and a European system of law was established. These changes are true milestones. In the arts, more emphasis was put on architecture and sculpture, while in parallel there was a revival of interest in Latin poetry and Latin classics. An outer expansion began in the late 13th century, when the Venetian explorer Marco Polo set out to follow the Silk Road to China. His doc umentary Il Milone made Europeans more aware of the Far East, which inspired many missionaries (Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, Giovanni de Marignolli, Giovanni di Monte Corvino, and others) to go east and spread Christianity. The greatest leaps of human knowledge were, however, recorded in science and technology. Since Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhazen, 965-1039) laid down the foundations of the scientific method, the emphasis was put on seeking truth. Science thus became a formal discipline, different from philosophy. In early Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire, the most advanced culture of antiquity, suffered losses and a decline in its scientific capacity. Likewise, Western Europe, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, suffered a catastrophic loss of knowledge. This was partially offset by the efforts of Church scholars, like Aquinas and Buridan, who preserved elements of scientific inquiry. In that manner, by translating and imitating the works of Islamic scholars Europe could begin catching up with the scientific discoveries of the Islamic world, the Mediterranean basin, India, and China. The most important steps to Europes scientific recovery at that time comprise the following events: Development of the scientific method (Alhazen, Biruni, Bacon, and Grosseteste); Arithmetic and Algebra (Al-Khwarizmi); Differential calculus (Bhaskara); Mechanics (Avicenna, with a later contribution by Ibn Bajjah, also known as Avempace, Buridan, Galileo, Descartes and Newton); Optics(Aristotle, Plato, Galen, Euclid, Hero of Alexandria, Ptolemaeus. In the 10th century, Alhazen proved empirically that light propagates linearly;Robert Grosseteste developed a theory of optics based on the works of al-Kindi and Ptolemaeus. Roger Bacon expanded on Grossetestess theory and integrated Alhazens optics into it. Finally, Kepler was able to use the foregoing findings to develop the modern theory of optics); Surgery(Abulcasis or Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi developed procedures and instruments of modern surgery, such as the scalpel, syringe, vaginal speculum, etc.). In 1266, Theodo ric Borgogni published his Chirurgia, in which he advocates antiseptic surgery); Alchemy and Chemistry (The Jaberian Corpus, written in the 10th century by the Brotherhood of Purity (Ismaylia), the Summa Perfectionis, by Paulus de Tarento, the Secret of Secrets by al-Razi (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi);Trigonometry (al-Tusi, Regiomontanus and Puerbach made these methods wider known in the 15th century); Navigation (the astrolabe and the portable compass, Peter de Maricourt); Accurate lunar models(Ibn al-Shatir; Copernicus is believed to have relied on al-Shatirs model); Incendiary weapons and bombs (flame-throwers, land- and sea-mines, and rockets). Among important technological accomplishments and developments, the following can be listed: The windmill, first mentioned in 1185 (England); Paper manufacture began around 1270 (Italy); The spinning wheel (13th century); The magnetic compass for navigation, and the astrolabe (toward the end of the 13th century); Eyeglasses, in the late 13th century (Italy); The Hindu-Arabic numerals introduced to Europe in 1202 with the book Liber Abaci by Leonardo of Pisa; The stern-mounted rudder, which can be found on church carvings. The philosophy developed in the Middle Ages was the Scholasticism. It is founded on a reinterpretation of the works of Aristotle, with further refinements by scholars like Avicenna, Averroes, Albertus Magnus, Bonaventure, and Abà ©lard. Scholasticism believes in empirical studies, and its practitioners supported the Catholic Church. Perhaps the most famous practitioner of Scholasticism was Thomas of Aquinas. His Philosophy of mind teaches that the mind of a newborn baby is a tabula rasa that was given the ability to think, and to recognize forms, patterns, or ideas through a divine spark. In the late Middle Ages, the rate of scientific progress declined significantly due to the decline of the Muslim empires and the Byzantine Empire. This situation lasted until after the Renaissance. The Italian Reanaissance. The Italian Reanaissance brought further changes into the mode of thinking and lifestyle of people. The Renaissance philosophy is that of Humanism, which perhaps is more a method of learning than a philosophy per se. An approximate, but generally accepted definition of Humanism is â€Å"the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome†. Unlike the medieval scholars, humanists would apply a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence in reading and appraising ancient texts in the original. Humanist education focused on the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, rhetoric, and moral philosophy. Above all, humanists asserted mans genius and the ability of the human mind, which is unique and extraordinary. Humanism is more secular in some aspects, but it unquestionably developed against a Christian backdrop, particularly in the Northern Renaissance. That period gave mankind some outstanding theologians, all of them followers of the humanist method. They include Zwingli, Calvin, Thomas More, Erasmus, and Martin Luther. In particular, Dr Martin Luther must be viewed as the liberator of the human soul, with whatever effect it had on subsequent cataclysmic developments in society, science, business, and trade. Although the people of the Renaissance were well aware of their freedom and creativity, the term creativity was not established yet. It was not until the 17th-century that the word â€Å"creativity† was applied for the first time. The man behind it was Polish poet Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595-1640), also known as â€Å"the last Latin poet†. Sarbiewaski applied the term only to poetry. In his treatise, De perfecta poesi, he wrote that a poet â€Å"invents,† and creates anew (â€Å"de novo creat†) in the manner of God (â€Å"instar Dei†) (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248). Other arts, in Sarbiewskis opinion, do not create. They merely imitate and copy. Why Sarbiewski regarded creativity as something that only poetry could be associated with, thus excluding visual arts, follows from his opinion that arts (other than poetry) imitate and copy, rather than create, in that they assume the material from which they create is already available, and so is the subject. At the end of the 17th century Andrà © Fà ©libien (1619-75) called the painter â€Å"a creator†. Spanish Jesuit Baltasà ¡r Gracià ¡n (1601-58) saw art as the second Creator that complements nature. This formulation is reminiscent of Sarbiewskis formulations (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248). In the 18th century, the occurrence of the concept of creativity in art theory kept increasing. It was complemented with the concept of imagination. In Joseph Addisons opinion imagination â€Å"has something in it like creation†. A similar opinion was held by Voltaire (1740). These authors, however, equated only poet with creator (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248-9). Contrary views proliferated, too, particularly in France. Diderot worked with imagination, which he viewed merely as â€Å"the memory of forms and contents†, which â€Å"creates nothing†. It only combines, magnifies or diminishes. â€Å"The human mind cannot create†, wrote Charles Batteux. He, too, saw its products as displaying the stigmata of the model used. Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-80) and Luc de Clapiers, known as marquis de Vauvenargues (1715-47), proposed similar ideas (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 249). There were three reasons why they rejected the idea of human creativity: Creation was at that time reserved for creation ex nihilo. The latter was beyond mans abilities. Creation is a mysterious act. Enlightenment psychology, however, had no room for mysteries. Artists of that time age observed their rules. Creativity, however, seemed irreconcilable with rules. The third objection was, however, weak. Houdar de la Motte (1715) was one of the thinkers who suggested that rules, too, â€Å"are a human invention† (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 249). The philosopher Marsilio Ficino wrote that the artists work is the result of thinking it up (â€Å"excogitatio†). Leon Battista Alberti, the theoretician of architecture and painting, claimed that he preordains (â€Å"preordinazione†), and Raphael claimed that his ideas shape his painting. Universal genius Leonardo da Vinci claimed that it was his idea that determined how his painting was shaped, using shapes that do not exist in nature. Another painter, Raphael Santi, too, claimed that he painted according to his ideas. Giorgio Vasari claimed that nature is conquered by art. Paolo Pino, the art theoretician from Venice claimed that painting is â€Å"inventing what is not†. Likewise, Paolo Veronese declared that painters take the same liberties as they were poets and madmen. â€Å"A new world, new paradises†was what an artist shapes, maintained Federico Zuccari. Cesare Cesariano extended this to architects whom he considered â€Å"demi-gods.† In the realm of music, according to the Dutch composer and musicologist Jan Tinctoris, a composer was â€Å"one who produces new songs†. He thus associated novelty with a composers work. Writers on poetry were even more consequent. Capriano claimed that poetic inventions spring â€Å"from nothing†. Francesco Patrizi held that poetry was a â€Å"fiction†, â€Å"shaping†, and â€Å"transformation† (Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 248). The developments in the Renaissance science were as dynamic as in the arts. Science and the arts were intermingled, which manifests best in the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He made observational drawings of nature and anatomy, set up and conducted controlled experiments in water-flow and aerodynamics, systematic study of motion, and medical dissection. Leonardo devised principles of scientific research method in the spirit of holistic, non-mechanistic and non-reductive approach popular today. Leonardo deserves the epithet â€Å"the father of modern science†. The focus on the process for discovery, the scientific method, corroborated by influential proponents such as Copernicus and Galileo, is perhaps the most significant development of that time. This revolutionary way of learning about the world stressed the importance of empirical evidence, as well as the importance of mathematics, rather than highlighting a given discovery. Age of Reason In the 18th century, the Age of Reason and Change, the concept of creativity appeared more frequently in art theory. Once again, famous personalities needed an ancillary concept to explain and justify creativity. One such concept was that of imagination. It was first used in 1712 by the English essayist, poet and publisher Joseph Addison. He published 11 essays on imagination in The Spectator. In one essay he claims that only the sense of sight supplies ideas to the imagination. He speculated about a congruence between imagiantion and creativity. By the same time, the famous French author and philosopher Franà §ois-Marie Arouet de Voltaire distinguished between passive and active imagination. On the latter he wrote in his Dictionnaire philosophique that â€Å"Active imagination is that which joins combination and reflection to memory. It brings near to us many objects at a distance; it separates those mixed together, compounds them, and changes them; it seems to create, while in fa ct it merely arranges; for it has not been given to man to make ideas-he is only able to modify them†. Voltaire continued: â€Å"This gift of nature is an imagination inventive in the arts in the disposition of a picture, in the structure of a poem.† Both authors thus indicate that poets are creative, and they equate poet with creator. Modern times The resistance against recognizing art as creativity, seen in the preceding centuries, crumbled totally in the 19thcentury. Now art gained recognition as creativity and, moreover, art alone was regarded as creativity. At the turn of the 20th century discussion of creativity in the art as well as in the sciences, e.g. by Jan Ã…Â ukasiewicz (Sinisi, 2004), and in nature (cf. Bergson, 1907) began. At this point concepts proper to art were applied to the sciences and to nature [Tatarkiewicz, 1980, p. 249]. There was, however, a long waiting time to the scientific study of creativity. The thinking of some modern time scholars will be expounded in the subsequent chapter. The beginning of scientific study of creativity is generally taken to be J. P. Guilfords address to the American Psychological Association in 1950. Many scholars joined in the effort to explore creativity in the years to come. They took a more pragmatic approach to this esoteric subject. As creativity became established as a discipline, scholars realized that creativity depends on being practiced. Creativity reveals itself in accomplishments and deeds, rather than in words. While a sound theoretical approach still was important, more and more emphasis was put on developing practical creativity techniques. Important personalities illustrating this approach include Alex Osborn, who in the 1950s invented brainstorming. In the same decade, Genrikh Altov, later calling himself Altshuller, came up with his â€Å"Theory of Inventive Problem Solving†, better known as TRIZ. In the 1960, Edward de Bono became famous after having developed his influential theory of â€Å"Lateral thinkin g.† These and other theories and techniques are expounded in more detail in subsequent chapters.

Effect of Rewards on Employee Motivation

Effect of Rewards on Employee Motivation Introduction Motivation is the art of getting people to do what you want them to do because they want to do it. Dwight D. Eisenhower Like a little kid being given a chocolate on standing first in his class or a big hug for doing something good like helping someone, or cleaning the place after playing, rewards whether monetary or non-monetary can be significant tools for the motivation of employee and a positive step towards the improvement of his performance an boosting his morale. Jack Zigon (1998) defines rewards as something than increases the frequency of an employee action. Its a common observation that most of us dont perform our tasks completely, not because they are difficult but because of low interest or motivation to perform that task. The desire or motivation is necessary for the performance of an activity. Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981a) defines motivation as, internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction; desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior; influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior. Background Gatlin, Rebecca (1997), says that a good and attractive reward program is necessary the employees in order to motivated them otherwise the unmotivated employees will not perform their tasks properly and will ultimately affect the company in a negative way i.e. decrease in profitability. Organizations performance is dependent on the employees who work for it, so in order to get the better and quality output, rewards contribute a lot in this part, so it is essential for organizations managers to make effective and attractive reward programs to motivate their employees, Deeprose (1994). Gregory P. Smith, author of book Dynamic Ways to Reward, Energize Motivate Your Teams, states in his book that rewarding and recognizing the work of the employees makes them happy, provide them job security and they contribute more towards the organization. Edward E. Lawler III (2003), With the right combination of reward system practices, people will be motivated to excel, and those who do excel will be motivated to stay because they will be highly rewarded. This is the foundation of the virtuous spiral, in which both sides win and create success for each other. In Pakistan human resource departments are seen only in those organizations where technology is rigorously applicable or which are highly knowledge organizations. The telecommunication sector of Pakistan has shown tremendous growth in recent years and its all because of using up to date technology and the adoption of competitive and innovative human resource practices. Becker and Huselid (1998) supports that for having the competitive advantage for any business Human resource is basic source to get it. The organizations in the telecommunication sector of Pakistan are the structures that provide their services supported by the human resources. The most important factor in the delivery of the best quality service is the motivation of the employees; on the individual level as well as on the group level. In todays world of competition to deliver best service in order to satisfy customers it has become very difficult; in fact organizations take it as a challenge to motivate employees in order to get best output from them. The telecommunication sector of Pakistan plays a powerful role in its economy. Excellent professional services delivered by the employees of the telecom sector of Pakistan can create a positive and everlasting image in the eyes of their customers. Several studies show that rewards have a huge impact on the job satisfaction and motivation of the employees. Beer (1984) says that for top management it is the top most responsibility to develop a strong positive relationship between the organization and its employees in order to carry out the continuous needs of both i.e. organizations and employees. Organizations want their employees to follow the organizations rules and regulations i.e. work according to the standards that are being set for them, and as a result of it employees want from the organization good working environment, good salary, good behavior, job security, delegation of authority. For organizations understanding to deal with these expectations of employees is required. Nel (2001), argues that those employees that are motivated and are fully aware of the organizations goals, that provide the organizations benefit, will divert their all hard work and devotion towards those goals. According to Flynn (1998), that these days organizations understand the great gains derived by linking rewards whether monetary or non monetary to their business strategy. The telecommunication sector of Pakistan is offering several benefits and rewards to its employees; so that employees feel motivated and remain satisfied with their jobs and improve their performance in order to achieve organizational goals. Objectives The basic objective for carrying out this research is to measure the impact of rewards in the most fast growing sector of Pakistan i.e. Telecommunication sector Pakistan on the motivation of its employees. Significance The significance for carrying out this research is that whether the employees in the telecommunication sector of Pakistan are satisfied with their organizational reward system or not. And which reward type they appreciate the most whether the monetary rewards or the non monetary rewards. Review of Literature Rewards Jack Zigon (1998) defines rewards as something than increases the frequency of an employee action. In order to treating the employees of the organization right, rewarding them properly is one of the important components. Organization which is growing healthier provides its employees the opportunity to grow and prosper. In todays highly business competitive environment win-win relationship is important that forms the right treatment of employees by the organizations. Strategy of rewarding employees when performance is not good cannot prevail for long, hence rewarding for good performance encourages employees to continue their performance and improve their skills and knowledge day by day to contribute positively towards organization, Edward E. Lawler III (2003). ACCEL team development says that for improved and better output from the employees rewards act as catalyst. Rewards are part of the organization and management should pay especial attention towards them; rewards should be quick, significant, related to performance, compatible with job measurement and irrevocable. Rewards should be given fairly, if there is some factor of unrealistic distribution of rewards like giving promotion of the favoritism basis, it will have a negative impact on the motivation of the rest of the employees. Searle, John G. (1990), getting the satisfaction of the employees over the rewards that are being offered to them id a difficult task, organization has to learn to manage those things which creates feeling of dissatisfaction among employees; Employees satisfaction towards reward in comparison of what he expected and how much he received secondly is comparing his rewards with other people of same jobs in the organization, overestimating his own performance as compare to his colleagues. So rewards should be designed in full justice by the management of what they are taking from employee and what they are giving to him for his input, and they should be fully defined to the employees so that there may not remain any chance of misconception. This plays important role in creating feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Cameron Pierce (1977), states that every business use rewards like salary, promotion, and other types of bonuses to encourage employees towards high level of performances. Types of Rewards According to Syedain (1995), there are two schools of thought for rewards at the workplace, one is to say THANK YOU in any way, verbal, non-verbal, via certificate etc other is to give a concrete rewards that create an impact. There are two types of rewards monetary rewards and non-monetary rewards. Employee reward programs design requires a balance between monetary rewards and  non-monetary rewards  to provide incentives and benefits to the employees. Monetary rewards Marcia Moore, M.S.S.W.(2010), says that monetary rewards are those rewards that are being given by the organization in the form of cash, or through cheque or some other way of financial transaction for achieving the sales goals, providing best quality, providing outstanding performance in a difficult situation or delivering a project report in the best way. Gratton (2004), states that motivation is determined by both monetary and non-monetary factors, money has come to play an overly important role in our thinking about the causes of behavior. In most companies very limited time and effort are spent on considering non-monetary sources of motivation. Money is an important factor in motivating people as we live in a money motivated world. According to Peter Drucker (1974), there is not one shred of evidence for the allege turning away from material rewards. Antimaterialism is a myth, no matter how much it is extolled. Monetary rewards have so much importance that if no proper attention is paid to them or ignoring them will act as demotivator. He further says, Economic incentives are becoming rights rather than rewards. ACCEL team development argues that monetary rewards cannot be remunerated by the non-monetary rewards (human relations). Famous companies like Microsoft, IBM are to some level a result of monetary motivation. Financially rewarding employees increases their motivation levels, which results in increase in the output, creating more profits and those profits should be circulated back to the employees who are actually responsible for it. Non-Monetary Rewards Marcia Moore, M.S.S.W., (2010), non-monetary awards includes certificate, a word of thanks from supervisor or manager, flexible schedules, a day off, acknowledgment of birthdays, and free lunches or dinners to celebrate team work success. Pfeffer (1998), People do work for money but they work even more for meaning in their livesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Companies that ignore this fact are essentially bribing their employees and will pay the price in a lack of loyalty and commitment. Sherry Ryan (Training Specialist, Weyerhaeuser Company), says that non-monetary rewards play important role in improving employee performance. Using proper attractive and communicative method of non-monetary rewards leaves a positive impact on the employees and improves employees performances in different dimensions. Such types of awards are inexpensive to give to employees but worth a lot when employees receive them. Bob Nelson (2004), saying thank you to your employees or appreciating their performances when something good is done, is extremely important factor that should be recognized by the managers. According to him 78% employees said that they feel more motivated and happy when their manager appreciates them. According to research conducted by, Allen and Helms (2002), expressions of appreciation and praise by the managers give employees encouragement. American Society for Training and Developments (ASTD) research proves that non-monetary awards work as an important factor for keeping hold of top performing employees. Motivation Motivation is derived from a Latin word, movere, which means to move. The author of book Motivation, beliefs, and organizational transformation (1999), Dr. Green and Butkus (1999), says that motivation is derived from a word motivate, which means to move, push or persuade to act for satisfying a need. Further motivation can be explained as acting of such forces within a person that cause a stimulation of effort, direction and goal direction. Motivation is the total involvement of a person in his tasks to carry out with dedication, devotion, happiness, excitements, and voluntarily, Mol (1992). Theories on Motivation There are two classes of theory of motivation; Content Theories: Content also called as need theories of motivation basically emphasis on internal factors of an individual that strengthen and gives the direction to the behavior. Maslows Hierarchy of needs: Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954), unsatisfied needs creates demotivation, there are following needs that must be satisfied, these are called as deficiency needs. As these needs are fulfilled the person is satisfied and move towards growth and self actualization. Physiological needs: These are the basic needs for example food, water, air, and all other things that are necessary for the survival. In order to enhance workplace motivation by achieving the target of fulfilling the needs of employee give proper breaks for lunch, and offer such salary to employees that enable them to buy basic needs of life. Provide ample breaks for lunch and  recuperation and pay  salaries that allow workers to  buy lifes essentials. Security needs: it includes security regarding the physical environment, living in a safe area, medical insurance, job security. These needs can simply be fulfilled by giving all these securities to employees. Belongingness needs: it includes friendships trust and satisfaction, feeling right in a group, giving and receiving care and love. It can be achieved by generating a feeling of acceptance. Esteem needs: It includes recognition, attention, social status, accomplishment, self-respect. It can be achieved by recognizing the achievements of the employee, by assigning them some projects, make them feel important and valued asset for organization. Self-actualization needs: it includes ones own potential, creative capabilities etc, it can be achieved by offering challenging and meaningful work assignments which enable innovation, creativity, and progress according to long-term goals. Alderfers ERG Theory: The Alderfers ERG theory (1969), is an extension of Maslows theory of needs. He suggested that needs can be divided into three components; existence (similar to physiological needs and security needs), relatedness (similar to belongingness needs and esteem needs) and growth (similar to self-actualization). It differs from Maslow hierarchy of needs theory in a way that according to Alderfers it may happen that more than one need may be motivated at the same time, lower motivators is not necessary to be   significantly fulfilled before moving towards higher motivators, the order of needs may differ from person to person, there is a frustration- regression principle and according to it if high order need is frustrated a person may regress to increase the satisfaction of a lower need which appears easier to satisfy. Frederick Herzbergs Motivator hygiene theory: Herzbergs motivator hygiene theory (1959), is closely related to Maslows theory but it is more closely related to how to motivate individuals at their workplace. According to him individuals are influenced by two sets of factors; Hygiene factors: These are said to be lower level of needs by Herzberg. Motivator factors: These are said to high level of needs by Herzberg. According to him meeting hygiene factors will not motivate individuals to put their effort or to improve their performance, it will just help them from being getting dissatisfied, but if motivator factors will be combined with this it will help individuals to motivate. McClellands Learned needs theory: acquire McClellands theory states that individuals learn needs from their culture and life experiences. There are three basic needs of an individual; Need for affiliation (n Aff): It is the need of establishing social relationships with the people, communities, getting accepted by them. Need for power (n Pow): It is divided in two parts, desire to control ones environment and second to influence others. Need for achievement (n Ach): It involves the aspiration to take accountability, set challenging goals and get feedback of their performance. McClelland states that a person has full strong capability in any one of the above categories, thus it has prospective to motivated people that leads to satisfaction. Management should understand these needs of the individuals and then structure their jobs to satisfy them. Those who have high n Aff such people perform well in customer service jobs or where customer interaction is involved. Those who have high n Pow management should provide them the opportunity to manage others. Those who have high n Ach such people should be given challenging but achievable goals. Process Theories: These theories of motivation focus on known human decision behaviors for the explanation if motivation. These theories determine that how an individuals behavior can be energized, maintained in willed and self directed cognitive process. Victor Vrooms Expectancy Theory: Victor Vroom (1964), theory is based on three beliefs; Valence: is the extend of the expected outcomes of an individual are attractive or unattractive. Expectancy: is the extend to which employees believe that they are giving enough effort that they will achieve the target of given level of performance. Instrumentality: is the level to which employees believe that achieving a given performance level result in the form of certain reward. Motivation = Valence x Expectancy (Instrumentality) If even one of these is zero the employee will have not motivation for the task, so managers ensure increase in effort will improve performance and improved performance will result in high rewards. The theory says employees have different goals to achieve and can be motivated if they believe that; there exists a positive correlation between efforts and performance, good performance will result in a reward, and this reward will satisfy an important need, and the wish for satisfying that need is powerful enough to make effort valuable. Equity Theory: Equity theory was first time developed by John Stacey Adams in 1963. Individuals in the society make comparison of their efforts (inputs) and rewards (outputs) that they get. The fairness regarding the rewards influences the level of motivation of individuals a lot. Equity exists when individuals identify that the ratio between there efforts and rewards is similar to whom they are comparing. Individuals Rewards (output) / Individuals Efforts (Input) = Other persons Rewards (output) / Other persons Efforts (Input) Similarly inequity occurs when there is difference in ratio in comparison to others. Inequity has two types; Under-Reward: this type occurs when an individual starts believing that he is putting more efforts as compare to others, but receiving the same rewards that others are getting for relatively less effort. Over-Reward: this type occurs when an individual starts believing that his equity ratio is higher other individuals. Thus getting more rewards by putting less efforts. Under-Rewarded individual may get motivate to do more work to meet his performance level while on the other hand he may get dis-hearted from this. Over-Reward individual start putting less efforts as he may assume that he is getting much more rewards from little effort. For managers equity theory states that rewards should be fair to all employees. Gary Latham and Edwin Lockes goal setting theory: E. Locke and G. Latham (1990), states that goals are important factors in affecting the behaviors and motivation levels of employees. Motivated behavior of employees can be achieved by setting challenging goals for them that usually involve the quantitative targets. Such goals of performance are more good than those in which you just say, you did a great job, well done. Researches have shown that challenging goals are more motivational than any other goals that are easily achievable. The more the dedicated is employee the more he will put his effort to achieve those goals. Researchers show that individuals that perform in goal setting have increases goal commitment. If an individual has high self-efficiency he will respond more positively to achieve goals rather than those who are low-efficient. B.F. Skinners Reinforcement Theory: In Reinforcement theory B.F. Skinner (1957), considered a motivation theory along with learning theory. The theory state that motivated behavior is the outcome of reinforces which are actually the resultants from the behavior that cause it more likely to occur again. It further says that it is essential to measure the consequences of behavior rather than to understand cognitive or processes motivation. Such behavior that was previously rewarded will be continued in future as well from an individual rather than that behavior which was not rewarded or for which he was being punished. The theory suggests to managers that they can handle the behavior modifications by reinforce desired behaviors and punish undesired behaviors. Need for motivation The satisfaction or the dissatisfaction levels of an employee are directly proportional to his good or bad performance. Employee dissatisfaction may lead to poor performance. Petcharak (2004), it is the responsibility of the human resource management of the organization that employee may not dissatisfy from his job, so HR management should take steps to motivate employees otherwise employees will not perform up to expected standards of the organization. Cheng (1995), says that it is one of the larges test challenge for service providing organizations to motivate their employees in order to satisfy their customers. The HR departments major task is to develop strategies to motivate its employees. Human capital rather than financial capital plays a significant role in meeting the goals of the organization. It is the responsibility of the top executives to motivate the employees of the organization. Human capital is the basic source of competitive advandage for any service providing organization these days. Organizations which actually pay attention towards the motivation of its employees assures its success, Dale Carnige (1985). This shows that employees who are motivated are best for the organizations to attain its goals, it is the duty of managers and supervisors to motivate them, Roberts (2005). According to La Motta (1995), motivational arousal causes an employees interest to complete its project, achieve all those goals that are being set for him. Different people are motivated by different ways, one thing that is creating motivation to one person might not create to other, because there is difference in motivation levels of every individual. Baron (1983), agrees with Maslows hierarchy of needs, that there are some natural factors of motivation that if provided to an individual will motivate him like security needs, esteem needs and self actualization needs. Importance of Rewards and Motivation Searle, John G. (1990), rewards are basically to motivate the behaviors of employees towards their work. Rewards should be given as a result to effective performance. Following are some conditions that are necessary for the creation of motivation among employees; Employees must have faith that their effective performance will surely be appreciated and rewarded. The rewards that will be being offered by management are attractive. The believe of employees that their effort is really contributing worthwhile to attain the organizations goals. Organizations must pay attention towards the Monetary as well as Non-Monetary rewards, because the balanced combination of both creates motivation. An individuals goals and organizations goals are independent goals that are linked by the work motivation. Individuals provide their services to organizations to attain organizations goals in order to meet their personal goals. So, we can say that an individuals goals are directly proportional to the organizational goals. Robert (2005), while studying the Barons work (1983) reports that motivation not only can influence the performance but the performance can also be influenced by rewards, i.e. direct rewards to true performance. Total reward system is the system in which salaries and other rewards are given to the employees on the basis of their performance. Therefore, total reward system is one of the important element, Wilson (1994). Mosley, Megginson, Pietri (2001), reports that the there are three levels of employee motivation; Behavior: the direction of those behaviors of an employee that he selects to perform. Effort: the level of willingness of an employee to put their effort on their work. Persistence: the level of willingness to work regardless of difficult situations. In Pakistan telecommunication sector is facing big changes for last few years, not only their customers are increasing but also the services are increasing. They reported from a research conducted by them that employees in telecommunication sector give more importance to pay and promotion than training, and pay and promotion gives a positive impact on their job satisfaction and motivation, . Kashif u Rehman et al., (2007). Theoretical Framework Problem Statement Hypothesis # 1: There is a positive relationship between rewards and motivation in the employees of Telecommunication sector of Pakistan. Explanation: Rewards are things that boost some ones morale to do something; it is observed in our daily life that whenever an individual or a team is being given reward for their good work the motivation of the employee increases to do more good work in order to get more rewards. Hypothesis # 2: Monetary rewards cause more employee motivation than the non-monetary rewards in the telecommunication sector of Pakistan. Explanation: Reward in the form of money attracts people more rather than any other reward in form of just appreciation or a certificated. This hypothesis will test that whether it is true or not in the telecom sector of Pakistan. Hypothesis # 3: There are significant differences in effects of biological variables on employee work motivation in the telecom sector of Pakistan. Explanation: This research hypothesis will find answers to such questions as; Who were more motivated male or female? Which age group people were more motivated? Who were more motivated new or old employees? Married people had more motivation towards work or unmarried? Sales people are more motivated as compare to rest of the people at different designations? Research Methodology Tool for data collection The tool for data collection for this research is survey. And for the purpose of doing surveys mail questionnaire is designed. This method of data collection is chosen because it has geographical flexibility, easy sample accessibility, saves time, and cost, anonymity and respondent convenience to reply. Design of Questionnaire The research questionnaire consists of three parts; Part I: It consists of personal information of the subject, such as gender, age, designation, working experience, marital status and education. Part II: It is designed for the collection of data about the independent variable i.e. Rewards (Monetary Rewards/Non- Monetary Rewards). Part III: It is designed for the collection of data about the dependent variable i.e. employee motivation. Units of observation The units of observation are the employees of different companies of telecom sector of Pakistan; Mobilink Ufone Telenor Warid Zong Wateen World Call Wi-Tribe Pakistan telecommunication Limited The sample includes all categories of employees. Sample Size The sample size for data collection is 1000. Time Dimension This study is a cross sectional study. Scale / Scoring of questionnaire Te Likert scale is used for the collection of data. Likert scale is basically a 5-point scale which consists from 5 to 1. For positive statements scoring is; Strongly Agree = 5 Agree = 4 Neutral = 3 Disagree = 2 Strongly Disagree = 1 For positive statements scoring is; Strongly Agree = 1 Agree = 2 Neutral = 3 Disagree = 4 Strongly Disagree = 5 Procedure Questionnaire will be spread out among the employees of telecommunication sector of Pakistan via mail questionnaire in their workplace. Instructions and grantee of confidentiality of the personal information will be ensured. Data analysis For the descriptive analysis SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) version 16 or simply Microsoft Excel 2010 will be used. For finding out the correlation between the Rewards (independent variable) and employee motivation (dependent variable) Pearson Correlation Coefficient will be used. For finding out the correlation between the Financial Rewards and employee motivation; and Non-Financial Rewards and employee motivation Pearson Correlation Coefficient will be used. For the analysis of the differences in employees work motivation based on the personal characteristics (biographical) ANOVA will be used which is used to measure the significant differences between the variances. Expected Results The various researches that have been carried out in various sector in different countries of the world reports that rewards have a positive impact on employee motivation. In 1997, Carolyn Wiley compared the result of previously held four surveys that were conducted on motivation of employees in year 1946, year 1980, year 1986 and year 1992. The survey that was conducted in 1992 resulted that in todays world employees are motivated by monetary rewards. Employees chosen salary as the top most motivating element. The research said that salary is a monetary reward with a natural influence. Limitations Low response rate Low completion rate Cannot catch verbal behavior Cannot use lengthy questionnaire

BP Oil Spill: Marketing Terms and Key Concepts Essay -- Marketing

According to BP website (â€Å"BP at a Glance,† n.d.), â€Å"BP is one of the world's leading international oil and gas companies, providing its customers with fuel for transportation, energy for heat and light, retail services and petrochemicals products for everyday items.† Currently, they are the world’s third largest oil company and the largest oil and gas producer in the United States (Hoover’s, Inc., 2012). Prior to 2010, BP attempted to brand itself as an environmentally friendly company by expanding its markets into alternative energies, such as wind and solar. On April 20, 2010 a BP-licensed oil rig located in the Gulf of Mexico exploded and killed 11 people (Kinver, 2011). In addition to the people killed, the oil spill released 4.9 million barrels of oil into the Gulf (Kinver, 2011). At the time, the effect on the environment, people, and BP were not fully realized. It is known that the Gulf of Mexico is home to many different types of wildlife including shrimp, fish, and pelicans. Although it is still too early to measure the full impact of the spill, scientists are doing their best to study it. Some conclude that the long-term effects could be devastating while others figure that it will not be as bad as originally speculated (Kinver, 2011). In addition to the wildlife, the people of the Gulf area experienced great loss as a result of the oil spill. Many of the residents rely on the fishing industry either directly or indirectly. Since the fishing industry took a hit, the people and towns suffered as well. In fact, many of the people have left and businesses shutdown (Dymond, 2012). The oil spill of April 20, 2010 was the worst in U.S. history (â€Å"BP p.l.c.,† 2012). While BP learned many valuable lessons from t... ...rieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-17186786 Gulf of Mexico Restoration. (n.d.). Retrieved on April 7, 2012, from www.bp.com Hoover’s, Inc. (2012). BP p.l.c. Overview. Retrieved April 7, 2012, from Hoover’s database. Jennings, M. (2010). What bp teaches us about ethics, risk, and business management. Corporate Finance and Review, 15 (2), 38. Kinver, M. (2011, April, 19). BP oil spill: The environmental impact one year later. BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-13123036 Raymond, M. A. and Tanner, J. (n.d.). Principles of marketing. Retrieved from http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/pub/1.0/principles-marketing Vranica, S. (2010, June 7). BP steps up bid to fix image: Company readies series of tv spots to address its response to gulf oil spill. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from ABI/Inform Global

Weaponry during the Elizabethan Period Essay -- History, Long Distance

The weaponry during the Elizabethan period was the most advance weaponry known to the world. The most common weapons used were crossbows, longbows, war hammers, spears, early forms of pistol and cannons. With all this weaponry Europeans also needed armor, like chainmail and plate armor. Different types of weapons and the different kinds of armor were a key component to warfare during the Elizabethan period, in Europe. Long distance weapons were essential to European combat. The main long distance weapons used by Europeans during that time were the longbow and the crossbow. Each form of weaponry had its unique advantages and their pejorative. The long bow (shown in figure 1) was the original form of distance weapons. The term ‘bow’ means to be made from wood, iron or steel. The Welsh, who inhabited England, were the first people to use longbows. Longbows were 6-7 feet long and had a range of 250 yards, and still had the ability to pierce a knight’s armor (Byam 12). A well trained archer could shot 10- 12 arrows in a single minute. Despite these pro’s the longbow had a lot of disadvantages as well. One draw back was only skilled archers, who were costly to train, could use a longbow. Another disadvantage was it didn’t have a ready loaded arrow (Edge 34). The crossbow (shown in figure 2) on the other had been emphatically different. The crossbow had a span of 2-3 f eet and could kill a knight on horseback with one shot, because of good aim (Byam 30). Crossbows had ready loaded projectiles, while the longbow didn’t and the crossbow could be used by anyone since it didn’t require any skill. The crossbow did have a down side though, it had slow reloaded because of a crank and it was expensive. Crossbows were also used for other thi... ...n in her book â€Å"WEAPONS†, â€Å"Gold plating, or gilding, was sometimes used to embellish borders or bands of decorations and, in some cases, entire armors.† By the 15th century, knights were protecting themselves with full suits of plate armor† (Byam 41). His armor usually represented his class or authority. Each knight’s coat of arms had a different personality ranging from different helmets to different metals to different emblems. During the Elizabethan period Europeans mainly focused on warfare. War required long range weapons to slow down the approaching enemy and short range weapons were needed for combat. This era started the usage of combustion and developed cannons and pistols. The advancements of weaponry also lead to the advancements in armor from chainmail to plate armor. Various weapons and armor’s were needed for warfare during the Elizabethan period.